Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. He developed a theory of social (or psycho social) development, a high level of which is set out in the following stages:
Stage 1 – Infancy period: Trust vs. Mistrust
Example: Secure environment provided by the caregiver, with regular access to affection and food.
Stage 2 – Early Childhood period: Autonomy vs. Shame, doubt
Example: Caregiver promotes self-sufficiency while maintaining a secure environment
Stage 3 – Play Age period: Initiative vs. Guilt
Example: Caregiver encourages, supports, and guides the child’s own initiatives and interests
Stage 4 – School Age period: Industry vs. Inferiority
Example: Reasonable expectations set in school and at home, with praise for their accomplishments.
Stage 5 – Adolescence period: Identity vs. Identity confusion
Example: Previous experiences are considered, societal expectations, and their aspirations in establishing values and ‘finding themselves.’
Stage 6 – Young Adulthood period: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Example: Individual forms close friendships or long-term partnership
Stage 7 – Adulthood period: Generality vs. Stagnation/Self-absorption
Example: Engagement with the next generation through parenting, coaching, or teaching
Stage 8 – Old Age period: Integrity vs. Despair
Example: Contemplation and acknowledgement of personal life accomplishments
Further information about the set of stages can be found here.
If we focus on stage 4 with the premise of the development of a child at primary school age, this stage details the expectations, and new pressures that are required of children of this age to adapt to, in the course of their development.
Once in primary school, children are faced for the first time with becoming competent and worthy in the eyes of their caregivers, classmates and teachers. Whether inadvertently or not, they have more people to prove themselves to it seems, which in turn can create new worry.
To achieve their esteem, students must develop skills that require effort that is sustained and somewhat focused. To be respected by teachers, for example, children feel they must learn and to behave like ‘model students’. To be respected by peers, they must learn to cooperate and be socially acceptable, among other things.
While there are rewards, there are also risks. If the child succeeds, they are able to experience the satisfaction of accomplishment or a job ‘well done’ (something that Erikson called ‘industry’). However, if the child does not succeed, the child risks feeling inferior (amongst other things) compared to their fellow students.
Teachers can express their confidence in students, which will help motivate them if they feel they cannot meet their goals and become discouraged. Paradoxically, these strategies will work best if the teacher is also tolerant of less than perfect performance by the student. Too much emphasis on perfection can undermine some students’ confidence, and foster inferiority by making academic goals seem beyond reach.
Caregivers are crucial to child development and in the educational setting. If their child is struggling then working with the teacher will provide more support, and ideally a more successful outcome. This does however depend on the communication and willingness to work together.
With regards to learning, if this is rejected, then the cognitivist theory is that it is simply a series of reactions to stimuli.
Cognition came to prominence in the 1950s as a response to behaviourism. Cognitive theories refer to the mind like a computer, and focus on how information is received, organised and/or stored and retrieved. Learning is also seen in this manner.
Cognition will be covered in more detail in another article. Memory is an important part of learning, assimilation and retention which will also be covered at another time, as well as Cognitive Information Processing Theory (‘CIP’) in respect of learning (and teaching).
Source content taken and adapted from the thesis: Do primary educational environments and experiences shape our motivation to further educate ourselves as adults by Dr Kelly Foxhall-Ridgeway
